What Is the Ancient Silk Road

The Silk Road is actually many routes from the Roman Empire through the steppes, mountains, and deserts of Central Asia and India to China. By the Silk Road, the Romans obtained silk and other luxuries. Eastern empires traded for Roman gold, among other items. Besides the deliberate acts of trade, culture diffused throughout the area. Silk was a luxury the Romans wanted to produce for itself. In time, they discovered the carefully guarded secret. Peoples Along the Silk Road The Parthian and Kushan Empires served as intermediaries between Rome and the silk they so longed for. Other less powerful Central Eurasian peoples did as well. Traders who passed through paid taxes or tariffs to the state in control, so Eurasians profited and prospered far beyond the profit on individual sales. Silk Road Products Eliminating the very obscure objects of the trade from Thorleys list, here is a list of major products traded along the Silk Road: [G]old, silver, and rare precious stones, ... corals, amber, glass, ... chu-tan (cinnabar?), green jadestone, gold-embroidered rugs, and thin silk- cloth of various colors. They make gold-coloured cloth and asbestos cloth. They further have fine cloth, also called down of the water- sheep; it is made from the cocoons of wild silkworms. —J. Thorley Cultural Transmissions Along the Silk Roads Even before there was a silk road, area traders transmitted language, military technology, and perhaps writing. During the Middle Ages, in connection with the declaration of a national religion for each country came the need for literacy for the book-based religions. With literacy came the spread of texts, learning of foreign languages for translation, and the process of book-making. Mathematics, medicine, astronomy, and more passed via the Arabs to Europe. Buddhists taught Arabs about educational institutions. European interest in the classical texts was resurrected. The Decline of the Silk Road The Silk Road brought East and West together, communicated language, art, literature, religion, science, and disease, but also made trade and merchants major players in the history of the world. Marco Polo reported on what he saw in the East, leading to increased interest. Nations of Europe financed sea voyages and exploration that allowed trading companies to bypass the middleman-states that had been supporting their socio-political systems if not getting rich, on taxes and to find new routes to replace newly blocked sea routes. Trade continued and grew, but the overland Silk Roads declined as the newly powerful China and Russia devoured the Central Eurasian nations of the Silk Road, and Britain colonized India. Source The Silk Trade between China and the Roman Empire at Its Height, Circa A. D. 90-130, by J. Thorley. Greece Rome, 2nd Ser., Vol. 18, No. 1. (Apr. 1971), pp. 71-80.

Popular Culture As Defined By Alexandre O. Philippe

Much of what we know comes from popular culture. It’s inescapable and it shapes our modern society. In simpler terms, popular culture could either offend or challenge social norms brought on by society on what is new, hip, and trends to be followed. Popular culture as defined by Alexandre O. Philippe, â€Å" is a universal language that manages in all of its seemingly trivial glory to make us dream and smile. To connect us across racial, political, and social divides, it is part of our fabric as human beings. It says something about us, about our better nature and isn’t it time for us to respect it, cherish it, and learn to preserve it?† Growing up in the modern age, popular culture has had a huge impact on my life. Being a part of the new technology generation, society seems to be driven by what’s new, what’s the latest trend, or what’s the latest issue. Now more than ever, popular culture seems to have taken over the new medium for how peo ple understand news and media worldwide within the numerous social platforms such as YouTube, television, Facebook, and popular magazines, as a newer and sometimes more effective way to share and understand news and ideas. To some, popular culture serves to over exemplify the ridiculousness of a culture. However, popular culture does not aim to destroy or diminish the values set up with what’s new, popular, or trending; but aims to strengthen the cultural differences valued upon each country by offering new and creative insights that may seemShow MoreRelatedPopular Culture As Defined By Alexandre O. Philippe944 Words   |  4 PagesMuch of what we know comes from popular culture. It’s inescapable and it shapes our modern society. In simpler terms, popular culture could either offend or challenge social norms brought on by society on what is new, hip, and trends to be followed. Popular culture as defined by Alexandre O. Philippe, â€Å" is a universal language that m anages in all of its seemingly trivial glory to make us dream and smile. To connect us across racial, political, and social divides, it is part of our fabric as humanRead MoreMetz Film Language a Semiotics of the Cinema PDF100902 Words   |  316 PagesDIEGESIS: Not in the vocabulary of linguistics or semiotics, the term was coined by the French writer Étienne Souriau to indicate the denotative material of a film. (See Chapter 4 in this volume, pp. 97 ff.) SEME: A basic semiological concept variously defined in the writings of the French semanticists Bernard Pottier, Émile Beneveniste, and Algirdas Greimas. Greimas sees it as a property of a lexeme, where the meaning of that lexeme is a function of the lexeme s semic integrity (ensemble semique)

Age of Enlightenment and Course Materials Free Essays

Candide worksheetName: Huy Dang Khac The purpose of this assignment is to help you develop the critical thinking skills necessary to write a basic, college-level analytical essay. You may type directly into this file and then upload when finished. Remember that you need to connect what you read in the book to what you are learning from other course materials to complete you answers. We will write a custom essay sample on Age of Enlightenment and Course Materials or any similar topic only for you Order Now Step I: Basic, factual analysis of a reading 1. List three examples of events/methods from Voltaire’s Candide which you believe best illustrate the issues related to the Scientific Revolution and to the Enlightenment. . The reaction of the Portuguese Inquisitor about the earthquake. b. The lifestyle of people in El Dorado. c. The despair of Paquette and the monk Brother Giroflee 2. Now for each point above, explain why this example illustrates these issues. a. Tsunami and earthquake’s acknowledgement are proof of developing science. The reaction of the Inquisitor for trying to kill Candide and Pangloss because of the earthquake is a typical example of the abuse of the church on people. It’s used to prove that what the church said is wrongful and people foolishly believe in what they are told. b. El Dorado is essentially the utopia of nobles, people living during the Enlightenment era. Street are covered with precious stones No Priests All of the king’s jokes are funny. Nobody care about gold or fighting over gold in the kingdom. King is kind and helpful. c. It’s the freedom of expression about their philosophies in life. They are noticing the ugly truth of their life as a sexual object and obeying religion against the will of person. . Finally, place each point above into the historical context (this means to make direct connections of this point to other specific information you have learned about the era from the other course materials) a. The Lisbon earthquake in Nov 1, 1755. b. French revolution in 18th century. c. The Seven Years War. 4. Compare Candide to the Appendix from Theodicity by Wilhelm Gottfried Leibnitz (found in the course mate rials under Assignments and Quizzes / Candide Assignment). List one example where the two sources agree. God did not choose the best course. . List one example where the two sources differ from each other. Every event is predetermined. 6. What do you think it means if the materials agree? It’s consistent among authors about the philosophy of religion belief/ life. Therefore, it’s a creditable source of outcome for further studies. When a material is proven to be true in two or more sources, its defense is stronger to believe in. It’s easier for readers, scholars to utilize in debating an issue. It opens way for discussion of an idea from multi perspectives. 7. What should you do with information that differs? First, I don’t pick which side I’ll support and which I’ll not. Search for facts (if possible), logical reasoning. Evaluating idea from my own experiences. Asking other people about their thought on both sides, then I compare and contrast both idea against each other’s. The result could end up be one side over another or a combination of both. PART II: How to use a period piece of literature (here answer the questions using your common sense and critical thinking skills) 1. List two reasons why students should be cautious in using a piece of literature in historical analysis. a. Piece of literature consists of belief and opinions, which are strongly opposed to historical analysis requiring good use of data, event. b. Piece of literature is written in a mocking way of the real society. Students should pay attention to the reliability of author of such piece to avoid bias in historical analysis. 2. Give an example from Voltaire’s book for each of the reasons raised a bove. a. Candide and Pangloss’s optimism – which are reflecting the belief of Voltaire They are opinion not facts. There are uncertainties about the truth of the society behind this thought. b. Voltaire’s idea of El Dorado: Once again, this is the utopia of Voltaire, which may or may not be the haven of other people. Believing in such event is over generalizing the thought of people in the society. 3. List two reasons why students should use a period piece of literature. a. It gives the idea, thought of people who are living in the society at that time. It’s more relevant than assuming the life condition base on dry facts. b. It’s useful when students want to do a compare and contrast to the theory they are studying. It gives students various perspectives to view an issue. 4. Now give an example from Voltaire’s book for each of the reasons raised above. a. The tsunami, earthquake in Lisbon and the reaction of the Inquisitor. b. Life of labor in the society during the whole stories. PART III: Sketching out an Essay In this section of the worksheet, you will see how all the course materials start to come together. If you were writing an essay, you would want to draw your conclusions and make your inferences using a wide variety of examples to make your points and provide supporting evidence (which would likely lead to an â€Å"A† paper). Keep this in mind as you answer the rest of the questions here. Now, suppose I were to assign the following essay topic (DO NOT WRITE AN ESSAY): In the period between the middle of the seventeenth century and the French Revolution Europe underwent a period of transformation in terms of scientific and social thought with had far-reaching implications in legal issues as well. Examine the impact of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment on European politics, law, and society. What examples would you use from Candide book (taking into consideration the concepts we have just worked with in Parts I and II) to back up/illustrate your analysis of each of the following points (give one example per each). Once again, you need to consider ALL that you have learned from the course materials, not just from reading this book. 1. One key impact of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment on European society: 2. One key impact of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment on European politics: 3. One key impact of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment on European law: Now broaden out your analysis to use other documents/textbook/readings or other non-textbook materials/lectures. Give two examples for each of the three categories above: 1. Scientific Revolution like Copernicus’s theories about the earth and sun, which the earth is not the center of our solar system. This went against the way that churches were teaching (Before, Plato believed that Earth was the center of the universe). Also, Galileo Galilei with the discovery of telescope and the law of the pendulum, both prove that Aristole was wrong. Both of them prove that Church could be wrong in science by their scientific method and reason. In the end, people began to ask themselves that what if they can understand other things in life by using scientific method and reason. Started back in 1500s, people went on to use reason, experiment, and observations to develop and progress. . John Locke was a philosopher. He believed that people were able to govern themselves; therefore he did not like the absolute monarch. He wanted more power for ordinary people (because everybody is born free and were right to life, liberty, and property. Later, his book had a big effect on what we think about politics and government today. Voltaire was one of the most important philosophers of the Enlightenment. H e spent much of his life to criticize the church for freedom of religion and speech. In Voltaire’s idea, the best ruler would be an enlightened monarch, who studied the science of government and protected the basic rights of the people. The philosophes were concerned about social and religious issues. They encouraged education as the way to end ignorance, and superstition. 3. Deism was the idea that universe was created by a higher being (God). According to deist, there are no supernatural acts, such as miracles, manifestation, messages; they considered it as religious superstition. The Spirit of the Laws by Montesquieu, who argued that power of the king, came from people, not from God or Divine Right. In conclusion, the Enlightenment changed the way that people thought about science, religion, politics, and laws. We can still see those effects in our lives today. Now, if you were really writing an essay, you would have organized all of your strong examples to use in supporting your â€Å"big picture† analysis that comes from the text and lecture materials. You are ready to write a well-organized, critical thinking analytical essay on the above topic (DO NOT DO THIS). How to cite Age of Enlightenment and Course Materials, Essay examples

The Circus Essay Sample free essay sample

As clip passed. everyone became more dying for the show to get down. I look about at the craze of the crowd. filled with many people of all ages. Siting front row. I wait impatiently. grinning from ear to ear. Just so the visible radiations dim. and the degree of my exhilaration increases vastly. it’s eventually clip ; the circus has begun! A topographic point visible radiation comes on and Begins traveling rapidly in every which manner. A man’s deep voice comes over the talkers. â€Å"Ladies and Gentlemen. delight take your seats. We welcome you all to the circus and hope you enjoy the show† . Once the announcer had finished. the topographic point light zeroed in on centre phase. where a big gold king of beasts sat. Hearing the cleft of a whip. a really tall skinny adult male walks into the now turning topographic point visible radiation. Another smack of the leather whip is released by the tamer and the slayer animal opens his tremendous oral cavity and lets out a great boom. We will write a custom essay sample on The Circus Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The crowd begins to hearten aloud. The adult male so guides the king of beasts through legion Ag basketballs. which amazes everyone including myself. After a few more fast ones. the king of beasts tamer takes a bow and both he and the king of beasts walk side by side off phase. Following the lion’s act. two adult females dressed in bluish beady frocks appear on the trapeze. Very high in the air and with no net about to catch them if they fell. I watch mesmerized with every somersault and turn made. cognizing the littlest error would be them their modus operandi. Next was an dumbfounding contortionist. In complete silence everyone tickers as their heads are blown by the bending and show of such unusual and alone flexibleness. When each act ended. I applaud for the unbelievable public presentations. Just so I smell popcorn popping. elephantine pes long hot Canis familiariss grilling. and conceive of the cotton confect being spun. It seemed as joy and amusement rapidly got the best of me and before I knew it. the first half of the show had finished. Smelling the mouthwatering nutrient. it wasn’t long before everyone could no longer strip their hungriness. On the 15 minute intermission. the nutrient booths were filled rapidly with people stuffing their faces with downy pink and bluish cotton confect that melted as it touched their linguas. and popcorn that left everybody’s custodies greasy from the sum of butter on every piece. The faces of the crowd displayed merry and pleasance with the exceeding nutrient they had purchased. Intermission passed so rapidly. it hadn’t felt anyplace near 15 proceedingss and the circus started up once more instantly. While the dark progressed. I find the public presentations more entertaining. Silly clowns with colossal ruddy olfactory organs and banging places were siting in autos much excessively little for them. Elephants danced. blades were swallowed. and a adult male was shot out of a cannon. Following the expansive coda. all the performing artists were brought to the phase to bow to the bright crowd. still full of exhilaration and ginger. I stood to demo to my grasp to the performing artists who arranged a fantastic and unforgettable show that was perfect for everyone who had come.

Thomas More Essays (597 words) - John Fisher,

Thomas More Sir Thomas More was born in London in 1478, and died on Tower Hill in 1535, along with Bishop John Fisher of Rochester. In 1935 he was canonized, along with Fisher, as a martyr for the Catholic faith. Feast Day, June 22. Introductory Note [Harvard Classics] The accompanying intimate account of the life of Sir Thomas More by his son-in-law, William Roper, renders a biographical sketch unnecessary. While More was a young law student in Lincoln's Inn, he is known to have delivered in the church of St. Lawrence a course of lectures on Saint Augustine's "City of God"; and some have supposed that it was this that suggested to him the composition of the "Utopia." The book itself was begun in Antwerp in 1515, when More was in Flanders engaged in negotiations on behalf of the English wool merchants, and results of his observations among the towns of the Low Countries are evident in some of the details of his imaginary state. The framework seems to have been suggested by an incident related in the narrative of the fourth voyage of Amerigo Vespucci, in whose company Raphael Hythloday is represented as having sailed. In the elaborating of his model society, More drew on Plato's "Republic" and on Saint Augustine for a number of important features. But the work as a whole is the outcome of the author's own political thinking and observation; though it is not to be supposed that he believed in all the institutions and customs which he describes. In ordinary intercourse, More was fond of a jest, and many, we are told, found it hard to know when he spoke seriously. Much of this whimsical humor is implicit in the "Utopia"; and while it contains elements in which he had a firm belief, it is more than probable that much of it was in the highest degree tentative, and some of it consciously paradoxical. In spite of this uncertainty as to More's attitude, the influence of the book, both in imaginative literature and in social theory, has been considerable; and it is the ancestor of a long line of ideal commonwealths. Modern reformers are still finding in its pages suggestions for the society of the future. The Life Of Sir Thomas More In hoc signo vinces. ["In this sign, you will conquer"] Forasmuch as Sir Thomas More, Knight sometime Lord Chancellor of England, a man of singular virtue and of a clear unspotted conscience, (as witnesseth Erasmus), more pure and white than the whitest snow, and of such an angelical wit, as England, he saith, never had the like before, nor never shall again, universally, as well in the laws of our Realm (a study in effect able to occupy the whole life of a man) as in all other sciences, right well studied, was in his days accounted a man worthy famous memory; I William Roper (though most unworthy) his son-in-law by marriage of his eldest daughter, knowing no one man that of him and of his doings understood so much as myself for that I was continually resident in his house by the space of sixteen years and more, thought it therefore my part to set forth such matters touching his life as I could at this present call to remembrance. Among which very many notable things not meet to have been forgotten, through negligence and long continuance of time, are slipped out of my mind. Yet to the intent the same shall not all utterly perish, I have at the desire of divers worshipful friends of mine, though very far from the grace and worthiness of them, nevertheless as far forth as my mean wit, memory and learning would serve me, declared so much thereof as in my poor judgment seemed worthy to be remembered.

Pro-Form - Definition and Examples in English Grammar

Pros in English Grammar Pro-form is a word or phrase that can take the place of another word (or word group) in a sentence. The process of substituting pro-forms for other words is called proformation. In English, the most common pro-forms are pronouns, but other words (such as here, there, so, not, and do) can also function as pro-forms.   The pro-form is the referring word in a sentence; the word or word group thats referred to is the antecedent. Examples and Observations: My grandmother started walking five miles a day when she was sixty. Shes 97 now, and we dont know where the hell she is.   (American comedian Ellen DeGeneres)Our father ...came back in the morning and told us he had found lodgings, and so we went there. They were east of the harbour, off Lot Street, at the back of a house which had seen better days.  (Margaret Atwood, Alias Grace. McClelland Stewart, 1996)One day in English class I passed Bill Hilgendorff a note. I love you, the note said. He folded it up and looked straight ahead. Then I whispered to him that he could live his whole life long and no one would ever love him as I did. I thought this was an amazing and daring and irresistible thing to do.  (Tereze Glà ¼ck, May You Live in Interesting Times. University of Iowa Press, 1995)We had offers to play in Hong Kong, and I always wanted to go there, but I wouldnt agree to do it because it wasnt going to add any more profit to the tour.  (Johnny Ramone, Commando: The Aut obiography of Johnny Ramone. Abrams, 2012) When the tzar was seated, everyone else sat, and so did we.  (L. E. Modesitt, Jr., Ghost of the White Nights. Tor Books, 2001)Boldly, Stein leaps from her short history of open source to the future of Canadian federalism. One might have expected her to develop her argument in the direction of scenario IV, but unfortunately she did not.  (Ruth Hubbard and Gilles Paquet, The Black Hole of Public Administration. University of Ottawa Press, 2010)Im proud of the many ways youre growing, and I hope you are, too.  (Fred Rogers, Dear Mr. Rogers. Penguin, 1996) Rogers, Does It Ever Rain in Your Neighborhood?: Letters to Mr.People cheerfully mixed the spiritual and the mundane, and I did as well.  (Gwendolyn M. Parker, Trespassing: My Sojourn in the Halls of Privilege. Houghton Mifflin, 1997) So and Not as Pro-Forms   Sometimes pro-forms represent less clearly identifiable constituents: (6) He may decide to join us next week, but I dont think so.(7) Speaker A: Will he join us next week?Speaker B: I hope not. In (6) the adverb so represents the preceding clause but with an appropriate change of operator: . . . but I dont think he will join us next week. In (7), the adverb not represents the whole of the preceding clause but changes it into a negative statement: . . . I hope he will not join us next week.  (Carl Bache, Mastering English: An Advanced Grammar for Non-Native and Native Speakers. Walter de Gruyter, 1997) Do as a Pro-Form Do is used as a pro-form when the predicate itself and all the complements which follow it are elided (Jack hurt himself fetching water, and Jill did, too). If another auxiliary is present, the pro-form do is less common (Has Jack hurt himself? Yes, he has; also, Yes, he has done . . .). Note that the pro-form do is not the same lexeme as the auxiliary do; the latter has only the forms do, does, did while the pro-form has these as well as done and doing.  (Stephan Gramley and Kurt-Michael Ptzold, A Survey of Modern English, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2004)

Using examples, discuss critically in what circumstances is it right Essay

Using examples, discuss critically in what circumstances is it right to whistleblow - Essay Example lowing has been practiced for a very long time, and this is especially common in the corporate world which means it largely involves the employee/employer relationship in working places. In the UK, the whistleblowing practice first came to light and consideration following the enactment of the Public Interest Disclosure Act (1998) that was meant to lay the basis of all disclosure cases including whistle blowing. Since then, there have been an increased liberty in the manner through which people have handled cases of unsatisfying or harsh conditions at public offices and places of work with statistics showing that this has led to an improved state of resources and employee management. According to the Act, whistle blowing is classified as all forms of reports from workers on suspicion of wrongdoing at their respective places of work. These reports are meant to reveal this kind of information to other publics in what is referred to as making a disclosure for the sake of public interest. According to the Act, a worker is required to whistle blow if faced with various circumstances especially those that involve neglect of duties by an organisation or an individual in the place of work. These circumstances include; criminal offences being carried out at the place of work, when the organisation or an individual facilitates another person’s exposure to danger or unsafeness, where environment is facing damage, unlawfulness at the place of work and someone covering up cases of wrongdoing. A worker is supposed to report any form of criminal activity taking place in an organisation. A good example is seen in an organisation or an individual getting involved in activities such as theft, money laundering or drug business. A worker should also raise concerns if a company engages in practices that lead to degradation of the environment such as releasing untreated industrial waste into the environment. A worker can also raise a concern in cases where the safety of workers

Design and analysis of lean maufacturing Case Study

Design and analysis of lean maufacturing - Case Study Example The reputation for quality is what keeps Elba afloat with a select base of customers, albeit with those customers increasingly coming from remote areas relative to the location of the plant. It is the remoteness of the current remaining customer base that has caused the company to incur a growing cost base in inventory as well as in distribution. These two items have grown by 12 percent and 10 percent respectively over the past three years. In absolute terms too, distribution has come to almost equal labor costs and has come to account for the second largest share of costs after labor, and only marginally smaller than labor costs at $11.1 million. Inventory costs, meanwhile, have come to equal materials costs, and with the rate of growth of inventory costs is poised to overtake materials costs. On the other hand, the move to Southeast Asia would chop 30 percent from distribution costs, and 60 percent from labor costs. Assuming all other costs remain the same, that would translate to savings of about $7 million in labor costs yearly and $3.33 million in distribution costs per year. Given though that clients are distributed in equal measure by volume outside of Asia, there might be minimal to no savings in distribution costs. ... It is likely that Elba will lose more customers with the move, and may continue to suffer from a profit squeeze as they lose the quality differentiation. The question is whether this planned move is wise, or whether a justification can be made to retain the plant that does not entail preserving the status quo but going about rejuvenating the product lines and making use of the available skilled and experienced talent to innovate and come up with higher-margin products (â€Å"Case Study 4.8 Elba Electronics† 128-129). II. Background Information From a financial point of view, the current state of affairs at Elba Electronics is unsustainable, and is ripe for change. That, or the trajectory is for Elba to continually grow its costs for distribution and inventory and therefore go deeper in the red. Earnings have shrunk by five percent over the past three years, and is already thin as of the time of the planned closure of the plant. The move would significantly bolster margins by r educing the biggest cost items in labor and in distribution as stated in the case, by 60 percent and 30 percent respectively, The FCP seems to have established a good case for the plant closure, but their analysis also seems to suffer from a blindside, and that is with regard to the effect of the move on demand, and on margins. This is an opening that John James can analyze and exploit, to bolster the case for a different kind of plan that does not entail moving manufacturing to Southeast Asia but doubling down on innovation to produce higher margin products (â€Å"Case Study 4.8 Elba Electronics† 128-129). III. Problem Statement Does the move to Southeast Asia and the closure of the Elba plant justified by financial and non-financial considerations? How does

Macro Economics - Supply Side Options Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Macro Economics - Supply Side Options - Essay Example Classical economists therefore focus on endogenous supply-side causes of unemployment and will prescribe policies that affect the aggregate supply of labor such as reducing information asymmetries and removing constraints on worker's mobility to lower unemployment in the long-run. On the other hand, Keynesian economists view the labor market in the short-run assuming fluctuations in the economy; the Keynesian aggregate supply curve is horizontal where wages are "sticky" and not everyone in the labor force finds jobs. Thus, Keynesian unemployment is demand-driven and caused by variables exogenous to the labor market, such as economic recessions and decreases in output that alters aggregate demand causing disequilibrium. Keynesian economists who give importance to exogenous demand-driven causes of unemployment will therefore prescribe expansionary fiscal policies to stimulate aggregate demand such as increasing government expenditures and inducing consumption to restore equilibrium and lower short-run unemployment. Supply-siders focus on managing aggregate supply to stabilize short-run fluctuations, and increase output in the long-run. They begin with the implications that without structural policies to shift the aggregate supply curve outward, fiscal policies focusing on demand-effects cannot increase aggregate output in the long-run because of crowding-out effects; while at the same time causing inflation because despite the shift in the aggregate demand curve, the crowding-effect causes excess demand, thereby increasing prices. However, since structural policies are difficult to implement, supply-siders emphasize the supply-side effects of fiscal policies assuming that aside from demand-effects, fiscal policies have strong supply-side effects, which can shift both the short-run and long-run aggregate supply curves to the right, offsetting inflationary pressures while increasing aggregate output. Hence, supply-siders would advocate fiscal policies that reduce taxes affecting the labor force, such as an income tax cut because of its ability to stimulate aggregate supply by providing laborers greater incentives to work thereby increasing over-all productivity. Furthermore, the shift in aggregate supply offsets inflationary pressures in the long-run, such that if the supply curve shifts far enough, aggregate output can increase without increasing prices. Question 3: In reaction to Keynesian prescriptions that governments must take an active policy role in stabilizing the economy, Monetarists take a more passive stance regarding economic policy, advising that the Fed must simply allow money supply to grow at a constant rate, and make adjustments only if the rate which the full employment economy grows deviate from nominal targets. Hence, Monetarists prefer rules-based policy regimes as opposed to discretionary ones, where the margin for error is larger. The rationale for Monetarist prescriptions lies in the assumption that the economy is inherently stable, wherein disruptions within the economy are caused by wrong economic policies. Monetarists argue that the economy is better-off if policymakers, with their limited abilities, refrain from fine-tuning the economy. They emphasize the time lags present in implementing economic policie

Effects of Groupthink in an Organisation

Effects of Groupthink in an Organisation Introduction The paper aims to assess the relationship between groupthink and team performance. First, it will review the conceptualisations of groupthink to analyse the effects of groupthink in organisations, focusing how it is formed and its manifestation in organizational performance, especially in group decision making. Secondly, my study will explain whether or not groupthink affects organisational performance through an analysis of the existent theory by Irving. L. Janis and the empirical studies conducted to examine the groupthink and group performance link. Finally, my paper shows some recommendations which reduce negative impacts of groupthink in workplace. Within my study, I also will support ideas by giving implications about groupthink in organisations in the light of theory. In the past several decades, there has been a substantial increase in emphasis on organisation behaviour literature, focusing on group decision making (Branstatter et al, 1982; Kerr and Tindale, 2004). The utilisation of group decision making, conducted in different type of tasks, has been credited with various benefits including improved productivity and enhancement of the quality of work life (Troopman, 1980). However, many researchers also review a potential problem that occurs within groups and that can dramatically hinder group effectiveness from their performance. This disease can be referred to as ‘groupthink’, which is presented the first time in 1972 by Irving L. Janis. The main point of theory on which Janis has been suggested is that the poor decisions of group suffering from groupthink derive from a strong concurrence-seeking tendency that suppresses collective decision-making processes, and leads to fiascos (Janis, 1972). Based on his achievement, a large bo dy of research has shown a conscious awareness of the psychological phenomenon of groupthink as well as formulates some simple strategies to avoid it. A review of groupthink According to Janis (1972), groupthink is described as a â€Å"mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members’ striving for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative course of action† (1972, p.9). Based on this theory, it is suspected that groupthink occurs when group members’ motivation for unanimity and agreement such as consensus overrules their motivation to evaluate carefully benefits of decisions as well as expression of deviant or minority opinions (Janis, 1972; Robbins and Judge, 2013). Many studies have evidenced that groups and teams can develop a high level of cohesiveness which tends to result in better performance. However, a considerable disadvantage of highly cohesive groups is that their decision making ability can be drastically restricted by Janis’s groupthink hypothesis. Indeed, strong cohesive groups, where group members are friendly and respec tful of other’s opinions, can contribute to faulty decisions and a policy fiasco when such groups are immersed in poor decision making process under in-group pressures (Eaton, 2001). With the same view, in other words, Fincham and Rhodes (1999) argued that highly cohesive groups can create the pressures of conformity that reduce reflexivity, impeding members’ judgement and their ability to reach a correct decision. From this point, it is clearly seen that each member of a group finds it comfortable to be in agreement, following a positive part of the group, rather than to be an opposing force, even if this factor is potential to enhance the efficiency of the group’s decisions. This reveals a reality that individuals who have different opinions from that of the dominant majority have a tendency to withhold or modify their true feelings and beliefs, which leads to distort the decision making process (Robbins and Judge, 2013). In addition, Knights et al (2007) beli eved that groupthink can cause a disadvantage when learning activities stopped as any further development was largely stagnated by a consensus that was more based upon a withdrawal of respect than upon a useful critical insight to assessment of different information and alternative options. Therefore, when the group is attacked by groupthink, the problems are usually discussed and examined in an uncertain way, leaving many possible solutions and useful ideas (Knights et al, 2007). One of the clearest examples of groupthink which can be considered is the the explosion of the NASA Shuttle Challenger, 73 seconds after it launched in January 1986, killing seven astronauts. The disasters could have been easily prevented if the NASA team noticed the concerns from engineers on the readiness and safety of the Shuttle’s structure before it were launched (Moorhead et al, 1991). It could be concluded that groupthink impede the voices of members of the group who have their own opinions b ut are marginalised, and maintain an illusion of group unanimity, which may invalidate team performance and contribute in creating fiascos (Knights et al, 2007). In addition, many researchers studied that the effectiveness of directive leadership is also one of the factors related to groupthink (Flowers, 1977; Mullen et al, 1994). They claimed that directive leadership has a weak connection with information being considered by the group, the discouragement of dissent, fewer solutions being found and more self-censorship by members (Flowers, 1977; Leana, 1985; Moorhead and Montanari, 1986). Based on previous studies, Moorhead et al (1998) believed that individuals’ opinions may be prevented from group interaction if there appears a strong leadership and group members just only follow their leaders without sufficient critical evaluation. For example, if the leader of the group suggests unethical ideas, and the group cannot control the rules to prescribe ethical behaviour, poor decision may be shaped (Sims, 1992). Similarly, Huczynski and Buchanan (2013) concluded that if the group leaders consider their position from the beginning and ap pear to have a strong preference for a particular goal, the groups tend to support their leader’s idea and do not have a chance to suggest alternative information or solutions. Research on symptoms of groupthink Groupthink, in most of viewpoints, is considered as a threat of organization. Fortunately, Janis (1972, 1982) described eight symptoms categorised in three types of characteristics which were experienced from the fiascos and serve as the powerful tool for recognising the existence of groupthink. They are: overestimation of the group (illusion of invulnerability; belief in inherent morality), closed-mindedness (collective rationalisations, stereotyped images of out-groups), and pressure towards uniformity (self-censorship, illusion of unanimity, direct pressures on dissenters, self-appointed mindguards) (Janis, 1972; Hart, 1991). These symptoms, according to Janis (1972), are considered as a collection of a concurrence-seeking tendency that can fade group decision making process and lead to fiascos, and even disasters. In his research, concurrence-seeking plays a vital role in collective decision making process; but, it will become excessive when it occurs too early in a limited acces s. In addition, Hart (1991) pointed that the signal of excessive concurrence-seeking can be derived from the pressures toward uniformity, and concurrence-seeking takes places in the context of misguide policy from the other two types of characteristics. However, According to Choi and Kim (1999), not all symptoms of groupthink tend to be associated with the others. Their study evidenced that pressure on dissenters, collective rationalisations, and self-censorship tend to be positively associated with each other but negatively associated with the belief in the illusion of invulnerability, the group’s inherent morality, and the illusion of unanimity. From that point, they also suggested that groupthink symptoms reflect two different processes that may occur in collective decision making: the positive correlations between the illusions of invulnerability and unanimity with the belief in the group morality, contrary to the emergence of mindguards, self-censorship, pressure on diss enters, and stereotypes of outgroups. Similarly, Park (2000) examined symptoms of groupthink based on the groupthink model’s Janis and went to a conclusion that the symptom groupings tend to produce negative correlations across the divergent processes. This strengthens for the argument of Longley and Pruit (1980) that the symptoms of groupthink have a strong connection with defective decision making process which would qualify as high quality. How to avoid groupthink It is clearly seen that groupthink is an invisible barrier that causes negative effects on group decision making process and lead to serious consequences. However, Janis’s achievement on groupthink theory has paved the way for researchers finding methods to avoid this phenomenon. Macleod (2011) suggested that it is important for managers to foster group cohesiveness along with a shared sense of professional solidarity. At the same time, it is also important to create an impartial comfort zone in which each member of a group is encouraged to have an active voice in the exchange of ideas and in the evaluation of options. Moreover, relevant outside input should be welcomed as a means of providing diverse information and broadening the extent of collaboration. Conclusion In conclusion, a large body of research has examined the negative impacts of groupthink to organisation, focusing on group decision making. All of them are reviewed and examined meticulously from the Janis’s groupthink hypothesis, which claimed that groupthink is clearly seen as an enemy of creativity, bringing threats and major blunders (Simone, 2008). Indeed, groupthink leads to group decision making failures which come from the highly cohesive groups and the strong directive leadership (Flower, 1977; Leana, 1985; Hart, 1991). Developed from this point, before groupthink becomes a potential pitfall in group decision making, controlled attempts to understand its symptoms are not only desirable but highly necessary. If people can do that, the groupthink framework can be applied effectively to analyse defective decision processes and propose recommendations to avoid groupthink in work organisations. Therefore, it is necessary to have more research on the potential threats to ef fective group decision making caused by groupthink to get deeper insight into this phenomenon as well as improve the further ideas and continuous in-depth research for groups.

Merging Social Work and Social Advocacy in Response to the Plight of Un

Merging Social Work and Social Advocacy in Response to the Plight of Unaccompanied Child Refugees in the United States Introduction More than any country in the world, the United States has been a haven for refugees fleeing religious and political persecution in their home countries. Linked forever to the phrase inscribed on the Statue of Liberty, "Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free," the United States, in the eyes of persecuted people throughout the world, has been idealized as a land of freedom and new beginnings. However, the changing face of refugees seeking asylum in the United States in the past several decades has exposed stark gaps in the legal, administrative, and social treatment of refugees. The majority of refugees in the early part of the twentieth century fled as families or in large groups. Recently, however, increasing numbers of children are fleeing their home countries alone. Currently, best estimates are that over one-half of the world's refugee population, or over 20 million, are children.1 Human Rights Watch, a watchdog non-governmental organization, estimated that in 1990 over 8,500 children, 70 percent of whom were unaccompanied, reached United States shores.2 While this figure is small relative to the total world estimate of child refugees, the lack of systemic or comprehensive United States governmental policies specifically geared toward assessing the asylum claims of children and their circumstances has become increasingly problematic. Continued human rights violations in China, worldwide genocide - as seen in Bosnia in the early 1990s and currently in Kosovo - and persistent civil wars in Sri Lanka and parts of Africa, have resulted in an increase of t... ...vler Center works with children and adults who are victims of torture, while a number of agencies, such as the Bosnian Refugee Center, provide support for specific ethnic groups. In terms of legal advocacy, the Midwest Immigrants Human Rights Center provides pro bono legal representation for adult and children asylum seekers. References Bhabha, J., & Young, W. (1998) Through A Child's Eyes: Protecting the Most Vulnerable Asylum Seekers. Interpreter Releases 75 (21), pp. 757-791. Center for the Study of Human Rights, Columbia University. (1994) Twenty-five Human Rights Documents. New York: Columbia University. Ehrenreich, R. (1997) Slipping Through the Cracks. New York: Human Rights Watch. Immigration and Naturalization Service, United States Department of Justice. (1998) Guidelines for Children's Asylum Claims. (File: 120/11.26).